Category: Natural

Animal

Cow Hair Fibre

Zoological Information

Two specific breeds, the Scottish Highland (Bos taurus taurus)and Galloway cows(Bos taurus), are specially used to collect fibres from cattle hair.
They belong to the family of Bovidae and are primarily domesticated.
These fibres are commonly known as cow hair or cowhide.
The anticipated lifespan of these cows is around 15-20 years.
Well-cared-for stud cattle have the potential to live for 20–25 years or even more.

Habitat and fibre production

Traditionally, these cows have been raised in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland, where the climate can be challenging with cool temperatures, strong winds, and variable weather conditions.
Highland cattle are commonly groomed by brushing rather than shearing.
It is a process that distinguishes the soft undercoat from the rugged outer hair and helps the animal shed its thick layer in warmer conditions.
While the resulting fibre may pose challenges in handling, it produces resilient yarn.
The United States is likely the biggest consumer of pulled cattle hair.

Features

Renowned for their durability and resilience, cow hair fibres exhibit exceptional resistance to extreme wear and tear conditions.
Their inherent strength and stiffness are attributed to the coarse texture of these fibres.
The fibres possess a medullated structure and are relatively slender and continuous.
The fibre length can fall between 12-50mm, and an average diameter is around 36 µm.
Throughout history, the insulating properties of cow hair fibres have made them a preferred choice for insulation material in specific regions.
These fibres are characterised by a woolly, fluffy, and double-layered structure.
In addition to their robustness, cow hair fibres can display water-resistant properties, proving advantageous in specific applications.
The natural aesthetic appeal of cow hair fibres is further enhanced by their varied colours, predominantly reddish-brown but occasionally appearing in shades of yellow, pale silver, or black[3].

Typical uses

Cow hair fibres are commonly employed in the manufacturing of textiles and rugs. The rugged quality of the fibres renders them suitable for crafting robust and sturdy fabrics.
In 1934, during the excavation of an ancient boat in the Highlands, a piece of rope was unearthed. Analysis has since confirmed that the rope is made from Highland cattle hair and dates back to a time prior to the year 1500.
Cattle hair has been found in historical structures, where it was blended with mud and cattle dung to create daub, an early type of plaster.
The cow hair is well-suited for producing brushes and bristles utilised in various applications, including cleaning, painting, and grooming.
In certain cultural traditions, cow hair fibres find application in traditional crafts such as weaving, embroidery, and other decorative arts.

Cashgora

Zoological Information

Cashgora is the descendant of a cross between male Angora goat (Capra Hircus aegagrus)and a female Cashmere goat (Capra Hircus laniger).
Cashgora goats, like other goats, have a similar lifespan of 10-15 years.
Cashgora goats are fertile, as they are the result of mating between the two parent breeds.
The name ‘Cashgora’ was coined in Victoria, Australia, in the late 1970s[1].

Habitat and fibre production

A small amount of Cashgora fibre is produced commercially in Australia and New Zealand.
In Tajikistan, the hair undergoes manual harvesting by combers, is sorted based on fineness, rid of guard hairs, combed to create clouds, and then spun into yarn through either hand-spinning or electric spinning. Finally, the process concludes with the formation of skeins.
Initially, Cashgora appeared fascinating to the world but later due to its inadequate maintenance, it led to a decline in the production of dehaired cashgora fibres from 200,000 kg in 1990 to 60,000 kg in 2000[1].
The annual production of these fibres is around 50 tons and each animal yields up to 50% of the fleece.
Commercially there are three types of cashgora fibres present in the market namely Ligne Or (18.5 µm), Ligne Emeraude (20 µm), and Ligne Saphir (22µm).

Features

The fibres possess smooth surfaces and high lustre.
It has good staple length and tensile strength.
In certain instances, the fibres exhibit medullation and possess a sheen similar of mohair, with none of them displaying crimp[1].
The scale structure of Cashgora is similar to that of Mohair than Cashmere.
The fleece of the young goats is similar to cashmere(cylindrical and semi-cylindrical scales) and mohair (fibres with splits and lanced scales) with a decent amount of lustre. As the goats mature, the cashmere-like fibres diminish, transforming into exceptionally fine fibres with mohair characteristics.
Cashgora garments knitted from this material may experience felting and shrinking when machine-washed, but they can be safely hand-washed.

Table 1. Physical and Mechanical properties and chemical composition of cashgora hair fibres[1][2]

Physical properties

Parameter

Value

Length (mm)

30-90

Diameter (µm)

Diameter( µm)

Chemical composition

Constituents

Value (in %)

Moisture

13.2

Grease

1.2-2.8

Water Soluble

0.6

Table 2: Amino Acid composition of Australian Cashgora hair fibres[1].

Amino Acid

Composition (mol%)

Cysteic acid

0.1

Aspartic Acid

7.1

Threonine

6.9

Serine

11.5

Glutamic Acid

13.5

Proline

7.5

Glycine

8.4

Alanine

5.7

Cystine

4.8

Valine

6.0

Methionine

0.4

Isoleucine

3.2

Leucine

7.7

Tyrosine

3.5

Phenylalanine

2.8

Lysine

2.8

Histidine

0.6

Arginine

7.4

Typical uses

Cashgora fibres are usually woollen-spun and are used to make jackets, coats, scarves, and stoles.
It is also used to weave high-end lightweight suiting fabrics.
It is deemed more appropriate for the process of weaving as opposed to knitting.
Women of Tajikistan use the skeins of Cashgora fibres to create a variety of knitted products to make a living.

Bison Hair fibre

Zoological Information

The scientific name of the American Bison, often referred to simply as “bison,” is Bison bison. It belongs to the family Bovidae.
There are two subspecies: the Plains Bison (Bison bison bison) and the Wood Bison (Bison bison athabascae).
In the wild, the lifespan of bison (Bison bison) typically ranges from 15 to 20 years.
Bison predominantly feed on grasses but also include flowering plants, lichens, and leaves from woody plants in their diet.
On average, bison consume approximately 1.6% of their body mass per day in the form of dry vegetation.
It is a close relative of the yak.

Habitat and fibre production

Bison, indigenous to North America, once freely traversed the expansive grasslands and prairies spanning from Canada to Mexico.
Annually, during spring, they undergo the shedding of their coats.
The bison’s fur comprises rugged guard hairs and delicate down hairs.
The yak features a two-layered coat, with an outer coarse layer serving as protection against harsh climate, while the inner, finer layer serves to offer warmth and insulation to the animal.
The production of hair per animal is around 1-2 kg and the total annual production is 5 tons.

Physical properties

Parameter

Value

Length (mm)

50-70

Diameter (µm)

12-19

Tenacity (cN/tex)

8.7

Elongation(%)

39.3

Features

The outer guard hair of bison is characterized by its greater length, coarseness, and strength, in stark contrast to the inner hair, which is silky, soft, fine, and possesses a lustrous quality.
The guard hairs are hollow, and unlike the inner hair fibers, they do not contain a medulla.
The fine-down hairs are solid and covered with fine scales.
The diameter of undercoat hair fibres in bison is comparable to that of fine and medium-grade sheep’s wool.
Items crafted from bison hair fibre are incredibly soft, boast temperature-regulating properties, are hypoallergenic, and exhibit antimicrobial qualities.
Additionally, these products are low-maintenance and easy to care for.

Typical uses

Fibres derived from these sources have been employed by Americans to craft high-end ropes, and they are also utilized as insulation stuffing.
United by Blue, an outdoor company, endeavoured to manufacture socks by blending bison hair with merino wool, resulting in a durable yarn[1].
Also, knitted products like shawls and scarves are produced by blending the bison hair fibres with other natural animal fibres.

Beaver

Zoological Information

The scientific name of the beaver is Castor canadensis.
Beavers belong to the family Castoridae.
The most substantial amphibious representative within the rodent family.
Beavers are native to the North American and Eurasian continents. They are found in various countries in these regions.
North American beavers generally have a lifespan of 10–12 years, although they can extend their lives up to 30 years.
On the other hand, Eurasian beavers, on average, live around 7–8 years but can potentially reach up to 25 years.

Habitat and fibre production

Beavers are adaptable animals and can inhabit various environments, including lakes, rivers, streams, and wetlands.
The finest quality of beaver fur is found in Canada, the northern United States, and Alaska.
Beavers from the northern regions boast the longest fur.
In contrast, southern beavers have thicker fur but are more affordable compared to their northern counterparts.
These are primarily herbivores, and their diet consists mainly of plant material such as tree bark, aquatic plants, crops, and herbaceous plants.

Features

Beaver fur is known for its excellent insulation properties.
The outer guard hair layer of beaver fur contains long, coarse guard hairs that are water-resistant, helping to keep the underfur dry.
It’s a marine creature adorned with glossy, coarse outer fur and a remarkably dense and soft undercoat.
Beaver felt was known for its softness, and durability.
Originating from a beaver with a weight of approximately 20 kilograms, the fur exhibits an average fibre diameter of 15.8 microns.
The fur could exhibit a dark brown hue on the back, transitioning to a light golden brown on the sides, or it might uniformly display a pale or silvery colouration.
The fur fibre of the Canadian beaver is characterized by a blue-brown hue, whereas other animals exhibit a range of shades from light brown to pale tawny.
Beaver fur is employed in its natural state as well as after being plucked or sheared.

Typical uses

Historically, indigenous peoples and early settlers used beaver fur for clothing, including hats and coats
Beaver fur, similar to muskrats, is highly regarded for producing felt hats.
Beaver fur was sometimes used for decorative purposes, such as trimming garments or creating ornamental accessories.
The water-resistant and insulating Beaver fur properties made it suitable for including gloves and boots.
Beaver pelts were a valuable commodity in the fur trade industry.
European settlers and traders engaged in the fur trade with indigenous peoples, exchanging goods for beaver pelts.
Presently, the fur is employed for crafting fur coats and trimming both fur and fabric apparel.

Angora Rabbit

Zoological Information

The Angora rabbit (Oryctolagus Cuniculus) is a species from which hair fibres are gathered for various purposes.
It is a member of the Leporidae family.
The lifespan of this species is approximately ten years.
It is frequently regarded as one of the esteemed ‘noble fibres’.
These rabbits were known as ‘Silk rabbits’ or ‘Combing rabbits’.

Habitat and fibre production

These docile creatures are commonly domesticated but must be maintained in an exceptionally clean environment.
Additionally, rabbits are sensitive to extreme heat, intense sunlight, and cold temperatures. Whenever a rabbit undergoes shearing or dehairing, it necessitates specific care to ensure its survival.
Mainly four Angora (Ankara) breeds are used to harvest hairs namely: English Angora, French Angora, German Angora and Satin Angora.
Breeding Angora rabbits requires a significant amount of labour and specialised expertise.
Herbivorous in nature, Angora rabbits predominantly consume hay, grass, and leafy greens.
It had its origin in Ankara, Turkey, and over the course of 200 years, it found its way to Europe, making its presence known in England in the year 1708.
These creatures undergo shearing every three months, totalling four times a year. The yearly output for Angora rabbit fibres is approximately 2500-3000 tons, with a yield per animal ranging from 0.4 to 0.8 kg.
In 1935, Western and Central France engaged in extensive Angora rabbit farming, yielding approximately 90,000 kilograms of hair.
China dominates global production with a 90% share, while notable contributions also come from Chile, the USA, and Eastern Europe.

Harvesting methods

There are several techniques for harvesting the Angora rabbit hair, which are given below:

Shearing

It requires a shorter duration (10-20 minutes) and is less stressful for the animal, but it demands more labour.
The remaining shorter hairs offer insulation against the cold.
Offers the opportunity to harvest more hair by reducing the time between shearing intervals.

Clipping method

It is performed with the help of scissors.
Increases the amount of sheer wool (length >10mm).
Extreme precautions should be taken to avoid causing harm to the rabbit.

Plucking

Immature and thick-ended hairs are usually plucked.
It takes 30-40min to complete the process.
In China, rabbit hair is hand-plucked to obtain maximum fibres.

Depilation

It is an age-old technique used in France since the 1980s.
It aligns the revival of hair follicles with a meticulously arranged coat featuring well-formed guide hair fibres.

Table 1. Physical and Mechanical properties and chemical composition of angora rabbit hair fibres[1][4]

Physical and Mechanical properties

Parameter

Value

Length (mm)

25-60

Diameter (µm)

11-15

Tenacity (cN/tex)

Breaking extension(%)

Moisture regain (65% RH)

13.7

Water retention (%)

52.9

Chemical composition

Constituents

Value (in %)

Grease

1.0

Vegetable matter

<0.1

Cystine content

13.6

Grading

Grade 1 – Length=2-3 inches, White, Clean, Without tangles or mats.

Grade 2 – Length=1.5-2 inches, White, Clean, Without tangles or mats.

Grade 3 – Length=1-1.5 inches, White, Clean, Without tangles or mats.

Grade 4 – Any length, White, Clean, Without tangles or mats.

Grade 5 – Any Length, Any Colour, Can be soiled or matted/unmatted.

Features

It displays exceptional fineness, lustre, and texture and stands out as one of the lightest natural animal fibres.
The Angora rabbit yields the longest silky white hair fibres among all animals.
Angora rabbit hair manifests in various colours: white, grey, black, and camel brown.
When spun, it demonstrates commendable cohesion properties.
Its hair fibres possess a predominantly medullated (largely hollow) structure, making it well-suited for effective thermal insulation and consistent skin temperature.
English Angora rabbits typically exhibit a grey coat with blackheads.
The French hair type is identifiable by its spiky and longer characteristics, showing a slower dye absorption.
Compared to the French variety, the German type is softer in texture.
The Chinese variant produces shorter and finer hair than its French and German counterparts.

Uses

Angora fibres are popularly used to make knitwear yarns, knitted and woven outerwear, hosiery, gloves, and mittens.
Angora fibres, at times, exhibit a shorter length and are consequently blended with other luxurious fibres like Cashmere or lamb’s wool to create novelty effects in woven fabrics.
Sweaters made out of these fibres appear soft and fuzzy and provide warmth.
Banning Angora rabbit hair-based products in 2013 resulted from the excessive plucking of rabbit hair.
Nevertheless, in order to maintain a presence in the market, certain renowned fashion retailers like Club Monaco, Sam Edelman, Scott’s Sweaters, and Etsy continue to sell blended products containing angora rabbit hair.
It is popularly used as medical and thermal underwear, under blankets in hospitals, nightwear, blankets, etc., mainly from German rabbits.
French Angora rabbit hair is generally used in making fashion wear.

Vicuna Fibre

Zoological Information

The bearer of the golden fleece is Vicuña, and its scientific name is Vicugna vicugna.
It is the smallest and most agile, wild species of llama.
They belong to the family – Camelidae and order – Artiodactyla.
Most of the Vicunas are found in Peru in the Andes mountains, and other small groups of this species are found in Colombia, Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and Ecuador.
It holds a life span of 15-20 years .
Being a swift and gracious animal, Vicuna is the smallest of all the camelids.

Habitat and fibre production

These golden animals are found in the semiarid grasslands in the central Andes at altitudes of 3600-4800 metres.
Vicuñas are sheared once every two years by domesticating the herds for a certain period.
It is considered a ritual by the communities domesticating this sacred animal, and once the shearing is completed, the herd is allowed to go free in the wild until the next shearing season.
The hairs are collected from the animal’s lower flanks and neck.
The annual production of fleece obtained from the vicunas is in a wide range of 5-6 tons and per animal the yield is 0.2 kg .
In the 19th century, Vicuñas were killed for hair and meat, and there was a drastic fall in their population.
Due to subsequent conservation efforts, the population of Vicuña has increased to 460,000 by 2020.

Table 1. Physical & mechanical properties and chemical composition of areca nut fibres

Physical and Mechanical properties

Length

30-50 mm

Diameter

12-15 µm

Fineness

13-14 µm

Chemical composition

Keratin

33%

Dirt

26%

Suint

28%

Fat

12%

Mineral Matter

Features of hair

Vicuña fibres are strong and resilient.
The yarns made out of Vicuna hair are finer than that of other hair fibre and is much lighter, softer, warmer than any other hair.
Also, it is susceptible to chemicals and other harsh substances; thus, it is often used in its natural colour.
Vicuñas possess long, soft, fine, and lustrous overcoat which varies in colour from light cinnamon to a paler white shade, with long white fleece.

Typical uses

The fibre obtained is turned into luxurious garments such as high-priced coats, evening gowns, shawls, and other warming apparel.
Also, winter wear such as overcoats, jackets, scarves, jackets, coats, etc., are produced on a commercial scale by renowned brands.
The communities caring for these herds make textile articles such as mufflers, shawls, coats, gloves, etc.
These fibres are used mostly for weaving purposes rather than knitting.

Spider Silk

Preamble

Every spider can produce six diverse types of silk from six different silk glands: Golden Orb Weaver spiders (Nephila edulis) is one of them.
It belongs to Phylum Arthropoda and Class Arachnida.
This species is fascinating due to its ability to produce yellow-coloured silk, making it potentially valuable for textile and other purposes.
Spider silk is one of its kind as it is finer than silk but possesses strength like steel as it belongs to a type of bio-elastic fibre .
It is highly resilient and durable, tough, and elastic, bio-degradable, and eco-friendly, has a lustrous appearance and is soft to the touch.
It can withstand significant impact forces without being damaged and its static load and impact resistance is better than other natural and artificial materials .
Spider silk tends to shrink when in contact with water; thus, properties will tend to change.

Milking Process, the Spinnerets, and the Dragline Silk

Using this delicate milking process, they can harvest up to 700 meters of silk in one continuous strand .
The silk that can be produced for textile purposes is mainly dragline silk from the spider’s major ampullate gland, used to make the outer scaffolding of a web, and minor ampullate silk, used to create the finer spiral in the web.
The spider consists of organs known as spinnerets in the abdomen.
The web creation is initiated by the spider secreting a proteinaceous liquid from finger-like projections on the spinnerets.
As this liquid comes in contact with the outer atmosphere, it dries, forming a thread-like structure.
While each spinneret releases the liquid, the strands produced are twisted, simultaneously making them stronger.
Dragline silk is mainly possessing exceptional mechanical properties such as high tensile strength and extensibility, toughness, and elasticity.
It is as light as a feather and finer than a human hair.

Table 1. Physical & mechanical properties and chemical composition of areca nut fibres

Physical and Mechanical properties

Tensile strength

5×109 N/m2

Elongation at break

35-50%

Breaking energy

1×105 J/kg

Chemical composition

The main components are Glycine, Alanine, and a small amount of Serine.

Typical uses

Scientists have attempted to use this unique fibre by making bulletproof armour, violin strings, medical bandages, optical fibre cables, etc.
In 2012, a cape made from silk obtained from 1.2 million Golden Orb spiders from Madagascar was displayed at the V&A in London.
It took 8 years to create this magnificent cape, as milking spiders and collecting sufficient silk for significant projects can be intricate and time-consuming.
Ancient Greeks used it to stop bleeding and heal wounds, whereas the Indigenous people used it as a fishing line.
By World War II, Spider silk was used in optical device of the sighting system of telescope, gun, etc .
It has good biocompatibility and biodegradability, which makes it an ideal option for medical applications. E.g., artificial tendons and ligaments, surgical sutures, etc.

Table2.Schematic overview of different silk types produced by female orb-weaving spiders (Araneae). Each silk type (highlighted in red) is tailored for a specific purpose.

Silk producing glands

Aggregate

Pyriform

Tubuliform

Flagelliform

Aciniform

Minor Ampullate

Major Ampullate

Types of spider silk

Aqueous cement

Core fibre of capture spiral

Egg-case silk

Capture silk

Dragline silk

Framework silk

Dragline silk

Framework silk

Radial silk

Chart 1: Types of silk secreted by a spider through different glands

Llama Fibre

Zoological Information

Llama (Llama Glama)is a camelid native to South America and are also found in USA and Canada.
It belongs to the Camelidae family like other camelids namely guanacos, vicuñas, and alpacas.
But it is known for being the largest of all the four camelids and friendly nature.
Llamas are domesticated from the wild guanacos which are sometimes fierce.
They are also known as ‘camels of clouds’, ‘Peruvian sheep’, and ’silent brother’.
There are two types of llamas, one of which is a light-fleeced animal known as Kcara, mainly used to carry loads, and the other, Chaku, is used for its heavy fleece/hair.
These camelids mostly live for 15-25 years, but some survive for 30 years or more.

Habitat and Fibre production

Llamas are primarily found in Andean plateaus and mountains in the South American region, mainly in Peru and Bolivia.
These herbivores mainly depend on the plants and vegetation in the surrounding area for their growth.
These social and gregarious animals are sheared after every two years.
It consists of a double coat, the outer coarse guard hair, and a finer and softer undercoat.
The annual production of greasy fleece ranges from 2500-3300 tons, with 85-90% of grease-free hair.
The annual production of the llama fibre is from 2500-2700 tons and the yield per animal is around 2-5kgs.

Table 1. Physical & mechanical properties and chemical composition of areca nut fibres

Physical and Mechanical properties

Fibre Length

80-250mm

Fibre Diameter

19-30µm

When heated at 150oC for 60min, of the original value

Breaking strength

70.22%

Elongation at break

84.29%

The thermal shrinkage rate

In dry hot air

1.35%

In boiling water

1.29%

Chemical composition

High Sulfur content

It lacks natural oils and thus

No Lanolin is present

Features of the fibre

The fibre obtained from the llamas is very soft and light in weight.
Llama hair fibre is fine, warm, and strong.
Due to the absence of natural oils, one can directly obtain spinnable fibre straight out of the animal.
It is lanolin-free, a waxy substance present to condition and protect the hair.
The garments or made-ups are comfortable to wear and skin-friendly.
The fibres are naturally available in 22 different colors such as white, silver-white, black, dark brown, natural brown, reddish brown, gray, cinnamon, etc..
It has good affinity towards dyes but is sensitive to chemicals.
It has little to no elasticity but acts as a good insulator is stain-resistant and piling resistant.
The moths can easily attack it and are less resistant to the sunlight.
The products made out of llama fibre the body moistures and odors.
It can be cleaned easily under moderate conditions.

Uses

The llama hair fibres are usually used winterwear such as blankets, scarves, vests, jackets, outer clothing, ponchos, etc.
It is also used to make ropes, fish flies, and batting for quilts.
The guard hairs are generally used for wall hangings, rugs, felts, etc.
Llama fibres are used in pure or blended form for producing knitwear and woven fabrics.

Eri Silk

Zoological information

Eri silk is obtained from the insect species; Samia Cynthia Ricini/ Atticus Ricini which belongs to the family of Saturniidae.
It is popularly known as ‘Peace Silk’, ‘Ahimsa Silk’, and ‘Poor Man’s Silk’.
It is the only completely domesticated silkworm besides Bombyx mori that feeds on the castor leaves.
‘Eri’ is derived from the Assamese word ‘Era’ or ‘Eranda’ meaning castor. Thus, it is known as eri silkworm.
It is a multivoltine, producing more than two breeds of offspring in a year.

Habitat and Fibre production

Eri culture is primarily cultured in the Northeastern States of India.
Eri culture is widely practised in Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, and Nagaland, and around 98% of the national demand is fulfilled by the produce obtained from these
Since recently, it is practiced on a smaller scale in states like Orrisa, West Bengal, Bihar, and Andhra Pradesh.
The silk is spun as staple fibres are obtained from the open-ended cocoons.
In India, eri silk is known as ‘Endi’.
It is more expensive than other silks as it takes time to practice the skill and spin the cocoons.
The life cycle of an eri silkworm is roughly six weeks in summer and twelve weeks in winter.
In 2016-2017, out of total raw silk production (30348 metric tons), eri silk accounted for the 17.8% (5563.7 metric tons) of the natural raw silk fibre.

Table 1. Physical & mechanical properties and chemical composition of areca nut fibres

Physical and Mechanical properties

Length

40-60 mm

Diameter

19.4 µm

Tenacity

33.4 g/tex

Elongation

19.5%

Chemical composition

Fibroin

82-88%

Sericin

11-13%

Waxy matter

1.5-2.2%

Minerals, Ash, and other material

2-3%

Features of the fibre

Eri silk is extracted as a staple fibre having appropriate fineness, cross-sectional shape, and surface properties.
It provides a feel like cotton, luster like silk and warmth and bulkiness like wool and is softest of all the silk fibres.
It has excellent thermal regulation properties; thus, it provides warmth in winter and coolness in summer.
Eri silk is resistant to piling and has good elastic recovery.
It possesses higher elongation, and shrinkage properties.
It is moisture absorbent, solid and depicts good form which gives a typical texture.
It is finer than Muga and Tasar silk and is softer than Mulberry silk.
It is important to give proper twist to the yarn to maintain the dimensional stability of the garments and made ups.

Uses

It creates the finest quality blankets, sweaters, and suiting materials.
The durable chaddars or wrappers’ winter shawls are usually used as winter clothing in the colder regions.
Jackets, dress materials, baby dresses, bedspreads, etc., are also made using eri silk.
Also, finer yarns are used to weave the traditional sarees and dress materials.
It is also widely used to make home furnishing products such as bed covers, cushion covers, curtains, quilts, wall hangings, etc.
Eri silk shows good blending properties and thus is commonly blended with other natural silks, cotton, wool, jute, and synthetic fibres.
It is a preferred material of Buddhists and Vegans as producing Eri silk does not require killing the moth.

Pashmina hair

Zoological information

This breed of domesticated cashmere goats in India produces the finest cashmere fibres.
It falls under the scientific name Capra hircus aegagrus and belongs to the Bovidae family and Genus Capra.
These goats are known by various names based on their regional origins, such as Chanthangi in Leh and Ladakh (Jammu and Kashmir) and Chegu in Lahul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh).
The Ladakhi cashmere is GI certified and recognised as a Kashmiri product.
The amino acid composition of pashmina hair fibres is similar to fine wool except cystine, tyrosine (12% more than wool), and proline (9% less than wool) .

Habitat and Fibre production

These herbivorous mammals are primarily found in the high-altitude regions of the
The life expectancy of these goats is around 10-12 years.
The goats are sheared once a year during the spring season, with each shearing, yield/animal is between 0.5-0.45 kgs.
The annual production of Pashmina hair fibres is estimated to be around 40-50 tons .

Amino Acid / Composition (mol%)

Aspartic Acid

6.9

Threonine

6.8

Serine

12.0

Glutamic Acid

12.8

Proline

7.4

Glycine

9.5

Alanine

5.8

Cystine

5.6

Valine

5.2

Methionine

0.5

Isoleucine

2.8

Leucine

7.9

Tyrosine

4.5

Phenylalanine

2.7

Lysine

2.9

Histidine

0.9

Arginine

6.7

Table 1. Physical & mechanical properties and chemical composition of areca nut fibres

Physical & Mechanical Properties

Length

40-60 mm

Diameter

9-14 µm

Breaking load

2-6.2 g/tex

Elongation

20.5 – 42.9 %

Tenacity

5.3 – 14.21

Amino acid composition

Grease

15-30%

Dust/ Vegetable matter

5-20%

Yield

43-57%

Suint

4-7%

Table 2. Amino Acid composition of Pashmina hair fibres.

Features

It is in great demand in the European market due to its fineness, warmth, softness, dye affinity, and lightness and resistance to wrinkling.
Despite of these outstanding properties, it is a delicate fibre and can be easily damaged due to dry heat exposure, alkalis, and oxidising agents.
Pashmina’s hair is identical to the fine wool.
Although it is 10 times weaker than wool, it is more hydrophilic due to the presence of more amino acids.
Also, pashmina wool possesses a smoother and more lustrous surface than wool.
Thus, it is known as the prince of special hair fibres.

Table 3.Performance properties of pashmina fabrics produced for hand spun and machine spun yarns[2]

Property / Hand spun yarn / Machine spun yarn

Breaking strength (kg)

4.964

4.975

Extension (%)

40.72

25.67

Alkali solubility (%)

38.00

46.00

Abrasion loss (%)

3.75

5.73

Thermal insulation (tog)

2.00

1.95

Uses

Pashmina hair fibre is used to create a variety of woven products.
Shawls developed from this exquisite wool exhibit strength, sheen, and pliability.
It is popular for its quality, comfort, visual appeal, and rarity.
Pashmina wool is used for making aesthetic clothing in Scotland, as well as shawls, rumals, stoles, etc. in India and neighbouring countries.
It is also used for premium blended suiting in Italy and Switzerland.
The inner coat of hair is used for making garments and aesthetic merchandise, while the outer hair is utilised for crafting ropes, blankets felts, and other products.

Cow Hair Fibre

Zoological Information

Habitat and fibre production

Features

Typical uses

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Cashgora

Zoological Information

Habitat and fibre production

Features

Physical properties

Chemical composition

Typical uses

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Bison Hair fibre

Zoological Information

Habitat and fibre production

Physical properties

Features

Typical uses

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Beaver

Zoological Information

Habitat and fibre production

Features

Typical uses

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Angora Rabbit

Zoological Information

Habitat and fibre production

Harvesting methods

Physical and Mechanical properties

Chemical composition

Grading

Features

Uses

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Vicuna Fibre

Zoological Information

Habitat and fibre production

Physical and Mechanical properties

Chemical composition

Features of hair

Typical uses

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Spider Silk

Preamble

Milking Process, the Spinnerets, and the Dragline Silk

Physical and Mechanical properties

Chemical composition

Typical uses

Silk producing glands

Types of spider silk

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Llama Fibre

Zoological Information

Habitat and Fibre production

Physical and Mechanical properties

Chemical composition

Features of the fibre

Uses

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Eri Silk

Zoological information

Habitat and Fibre production

Physical and Mechanical properties

Chemical composition

Features of the fibre

Uses

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Pashmina hair

Zoological information

Habitat and Fibre production

Amino Acid / Composition (mol%)

Physical & Mechanical Properties

Amino acid composition

Features

Property / Hand spun yarn / Machine spun yarn

Uses

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